Article Summary Of:

Federation of American Scientists (2006).  "R&D Challenges in Games for Learning."  Federation of American Scientists, Developed at the Summit of Educational Games, October 2005 (Washington, D.C.).  Available:  http://fas.org/gamesummit/Resources/R&D_Challenges.pdf

 

More information on the summit is available at:  http://fas.org/gamesummit/

Full report, with more motivation for research is available: "Harnessing the Power of Video Games for Learning."
Available: http://fas.org/gamesummit/Resources/Summit%20on%20Educational%20Games.pdf

 

This summary may not follow the exact format of the other reading summaries;  the format of the article is right on track with what I'm interested in, and lays out research proposals that need work in order to advance the field. 

Primary Topic(s) Addressed:  Educational Games

 

How this might be used on my dissertation:

Excellent source of research proposals:  see below

Questions Raised (potential topic for me):

Tons!  See research proposals below- they are all viable dissertation topics (at least a start on them).  The key areas of research have been identified and organized by approximately 100 experts in the field (developed at the Educational Games Summit, 2005, Washington DC)

 

Summary of Paper:

Frankly, this paper could easily be the starting point of my dissertation.  The paper has collective support of many experts- the areas of research and development in the paper were identified and discussed by approximately 100 educational game experts at the Educational Games Summit 2006.

The paper's introduction is great for answering WHY we need Educational Games.  The areas of research have been identified as critical steps that will provide support for bringing educational games into schools' curriculums.

Following is the layout of the paper with summaries of the topics introduced.  At the end of this page are my thoughts on the paper (click here to jump down there)

Paper Layout:

Introduction / Motivation for Educational Games

Where these research tasks come from:  Original research tasks from 2003 Learning Science and Technology R&D Roadmap, produced by FAS' Learning Federation Project (over two-year period, with support from over 70 researchers across academia, industry, government).  2005 Educational Games Summit, a subset was taken, and modified / refined by 100 experts at the summit- resulting in what is described below.  Key areas are identified in hope they will spur innovation and research to further the field.

While the introduction introduces the research tasks outlined below, it also discusses motivation for doing this research:  for higher quality education and training. 

The current model of teaching is described as "tell-test":  describing how teachers follow a one-way model of knowledge transfer from their heads to the students' heads, then follow up with tests to see how well the students have memorized the information.  This method of teaching may not be best- it doesn't suit learners for many of today's' and tomorrows' jobs.

As other countries catch up to the US, gaming may once again give our learners an edge- as it promotes a different kind of learning. 

"Gaming environments were viewed by many of the LS&T R&D Roadmap contributors as an opportunity to break the "tell-test" paradigm prevalent in education today and vastly improve the more elusive aspects of the educational process; namely, motivation to learn and to continue learning over one's lifetime.  In addition, modern video games may develop higher order thinking skills, such as problem solving, strategic thinking, analysis, planning and executing, resource management, multi-tasking, decision-making in a fast paced environment, and adapting to changing work scenarios." (p. 1-2)

Following are the key areas of research, broken into two categories:  design of games for learning; and adapting simulations to learning environments.

Research Challenges in the Design of Games for Learning:
Common aspects of a game:  keeping score / competitiveness; motivation; narrative / story line; problem-based, open-ended tasks; multitasking; allocating resources

Game challenges:  can motivate learners to play the game for hundreds of hours.  Why so motivating?

Purpose:  if the learned thing is perceived useful, there will be more motivation to learn it.

Research Questions:

  • Why are challenges motivating?
  • How do we add 'purpose' / usefulness to what's being learned?
  • What features of challenges add motivation?
  • How can we best structure challenges in terms of difficulty?
  • How can we implement challenges across task / domain types and learner characteristics?

 

Narratives / story lines / discovery-based (exploratory) learning:  adds motivation to learn; also allows for increased retention and application of knowledge

Narratives are the 'glue' in a game that makes gamers progress from mission to mission (task to task):  gives goals and motivation

  • stimulates curiosity (adds motivation by presenting an adventure)
  • sets the proper pace of the game to make the learning environment ENGAGING
  • game designers must strive for a proper balance between plot and achieving goals.

Research Questions:

  • How do stories / scenarios contribute to motivation? 
    • leads to guidelines for developing compelling stories;
    • leads to mechanisms to assess the appropriateness of a story for learning;
    • leads to effective techniques to support rich, highly interactive exploratory learning processes.

 

Degree of immersion / presence felt by the learner (feeling part of the experience)- makes the player loose track of time and the outside world

Also called the 'flow' of the game... bad game features (errors, etc) make us loose immersion, make us aware of the outside world / time ('leave' the game world)

Research Questions:

  • Does effectiveness of training environments correspond to how much immersion is felt by trainees?  To what degree is this true?
  • Different people experience different amounts of immersion and engagement.  Are some people predisposed to have a higher degree of immersion? 
  • What features of games lead to higher immersion levels?

 

goals = standard / objective for performance

goals also direct attention and set focus- in gaming, keeping score can focus our attention on how we're performing

Two types of learners:  performance-oriented (how they're scoring in a game) and mastery-oriented (how well they know the subject)

Gaming and score keeping favors performance-oriented learners- but can have a detrimental effect on generalizability of knowledge- mastery-oriented learners can generalize their knowledge better.  Performance-oriented learners usually learn a strategy or two that works really well- but can't port the knowledge to other tasks as well.

Research Questions:

  • What kind of impact does goal setting have on instructional design?
  • What kind of impact does goal setting have on task demands?
  • How does score keeping affect goal orientation?
  • Of performance-oriented and mastery-oriented learners, which ones get the most (learning) out of games?  What kinds of games?

 

"There is evidence that games can support the development of logical thinking and problem solving skills." (p. 5)

Skills that games can develop: 

  • strategic thinking
  • planning
  • communication
  • application of numbers
  • negotiation skills
  • group decision making

Research Questions:

  • How well do these learned skills transfer back to the real world? (from one domain to the other?)
  • What features of games support high-level thinking skills?  Why do these features work?
  • What are some guidelines to implement the above research into games, so they support specific learning objectives?

 

Many educators don't support games for learning; others believe in their power to be engaging, effective, and that they have a place in learning

Issues to overcome:  

  • curriculum redesign / changing educational standards
  • educating community / stakeholders
  • training teachers to use gaming / new methods of teaching

Currently most games in the classroom are educational games, not commercial games (although this is changing- some strategy / simulation games are making it in)

Research Questions:

  • What games support what instructional strategies and scaffolding for learners?  (what learning outcomes are met?)
  • Educational games are expensive and hard to make, and it's difficult to compete with commercial games (in terms of graphics, game play, etc).  How could we make the market for educational games known to commercial game makers as a potential market for making / selling games?
  • How does gameplay support learning?  How can it be used in an educational game?
  • In what settings are educational games the most appropriate form of learning?  What are some instructional strategies that make them more effective?
  • What kind of educational outcomes (such as higher-order skills) are needed by today's new economy, and how do games support these better than traditional instruction?

 

Research Challenges in Adapting Simulations to Learning Environments:
research shows simulations are powerful learning tools.  They are good supplements to lectures and labs, and allow learners to be immersed in a situated environment and use tools from a given perspective.  However, current knowledge of simulation design isn't specific enough to be useful for the simulation designers- so that learning is supported.  Also, automation tools are needed as simulation design is currently very costly.

Authenticity:  degree to which the simulation causes cognitive processes similar to those in the real world

Cognitive fidelity (represents concepts) vs. Physical fidelity (looks like reality):  which is needed so appropriate feedback is given, and knowledge learned correlates / can be used in the real world?

Research Questions:

  • How high does the fidelity NEED to be so knowledge can be transferred?  (Too authentic = too boring, since doesn't extend reality / fun?)  (Or, more authentic = more interesting, since knowledge acquisition promises applicability in the real world?)
  • In terms of cognitive and physical fidelity:  how authentic does a simulation need to be so that training can be generalized to the real world?
  • What techniques enhance authenticity / fidelity for what specific learning situations / tasks, for what kind of learner characteristics?

 

Most video games use a simple narrative structure:  path is linear, or lightly branching

A more dynamic narrative structure would allow for learner freedom to try whatever techniques they wish, choose their own path through a game

Research Questions:

  • How could we construct a dynamic game narrative where the players' decisions affect the direction / outcome of the game?
  • How can dynamic narratives be designed so that learning objectives (and plot sequences) are still met?

 

Actors / avatars add realism / authenticity to a game:  allows learners to interact with them if they act in believable ways

Lifelike simulated actors could reduce the human load:  if they are realistic, they could help learners, reduce the need for teachers in virtual environments

Realistic actors need to display appropriate:

  • emotions
  • actions that show thought processes
  • behavior
  • appearance
  • movement
  • reactions
  • decision making that is appropriate for the context / situation

Emotion is a very complex thing to model... as it is displayed differently at different levels

Research Questions:

  • How can we design actors / avatars with the above displayed behaviors?  (Some has been done, but we need more research on this)
  • How can we design in emotional sensitivity into avatars?
  • How can we design avatars that elicit emotional responses from game players?
  • How do humans interact with simulated actors?  (this would inform design process)
  • What kind of personalities could be programmed into simulated actors / avatars to support specific learning goals?

 

Like building scaffolding- we give the learner a supportive structure, and slowly remove it as they learn / progress - in the form of cues, prompts, hints, etc.

Scaffolding can be accomplished easily in a game setting:  provide access to domain-specific information, give assignments (questions / exercises), have a learning environment with model progression (p. 10).  These motivate and engage the student with interactive tasks.

Research Questions:

  • When / how is it appropriate to build scaffolding into educational games?
  • How should the scaffolding structure be in a game?  How much / how many cues, hints, etc should we build them up with, and when / how to take them away?  Should gameplay be interrupted when adding / removing them?  (Engagement / immersion isn't enough on its own:  learners need to be able to learn and generalize that knowledge to other domains)

 

Feedback and guidance are essential:  allow students to receive correction and progress to mastery level

Dimensions of feedback:

  • timing
  • content
  • amount
  • specificity
  • medium
  • control

Research Questions:

  • How can we integrate feedback and guidance into educational games (without a negative effect on the motivational features of the game)?

 

Making it happen / Conclusion

Educational game design is a multidisciplinary effort between the fields of:

There is no established community to do the research aforementioned.  CIS is very close though.

This effort also needs to blend and utilize resources from government, industry and private foundations.

The success of games means we can teach higher-order thinking such as:  strategic thinking; interpretive analysis; problem solving; plan formulation and execution; adaptation to rapid change. (p. 11)

Games can teach anything from car repair to heart surgery; and these skills are needed to compete with other 'lower-cost' workers of other nations. (p. 11)

With all the potential, the "tell-test" paradigm is still the dominant one in education. 

My Thoughts:

A potential area left out of this paper is that of online gaming (MMOGs).  There are many social aspects of those that might aid learning.  However, getting games into the classroom might be first... online games second.  Maybe, maybe not... Internet is pretty cheap these days... but could add 'troubleshooting' problems for teachers (on top of gaming).

 

Contradictions:

  1. Authenticity:  better authenticity makes simulations resemble reality- which is good for learners trying to generalize knowledge across domains.  However, does this cause the simulation / game to be less fun and immersive, as it doesn't extend reality as much?  (potentially less interesting to the gamer)
  2.  

 

Research Questions Extracted from the Article, with my additions:

Research Challenges in the Design of Games for Learning:

  1. Understanding the features of challenges that are crucial for motivation and learning
    1. Why are challenges motivating?
    2. How do we add 'purpose' / usefulness to what's being learned?
    3. What features of challenges add motivation?
    4. How can we best structure challenges in terms of difficulty?
    5. How can we implement challenges across task / domain types and learner characteristics?
       
  1. Understanding how stories / scenarios contribute to motivation and learning
    1. How do stories / scenarios contribute to motivation? 

                                                               i.      leads to guidelines for developing compelling stories;

                                                             ii.      leads to mechanisms to assess the appropriateness of a story for learning;

                                                            iii.      leads to effective techniques to support rich, highly interactive exploratory learning processes.
 

  1. Understanding the impact of immersion and engagement on learner motivation
    1. Does effectiveness of training environments correspond to how much immersion is felt by trainees?  To what degree is this true?
    2. Different people experience different amounts of immersion and engagement.  Are some people predisposed to have a higher degree of immersion? 
    3. What features of games lead to higher immersion levels?
       
  1. Understanding how to link gaming features to goal orientation
    1. What kind of impact does goal setting have on instructional design?
    2. What kind of impact does goal setting have on task demands?
    3. How does score keeping affect goal orientation?
    4. Of performance-oriented and mastery-oriented learners, which ones get the most (learning) out of games?  What kinds of games?
       
  1. Understanding the features of game playing that contribute to development of higher-level thinking skills
    1. How well do these learned skills transfer back to the real world? (from one domain to the other?)
    2. What features of games support high-level thinking skills?  Why do these features work?
    3. What are some guidelines to implement the above research into games, so they support specific learning objectives?
       
  1. Understanding how games can be integrated into classrooms and formal learning environments to support learning goals
    1. What games support what instructional strategies and scaffolding for learners?  (what learning outcomes are met?)
    2. Educational games are expensive and hard to make, and it's difficult to compete with commercial games (in terms of graphics, game play, etc).  How could we make the market for educational games known to commercial game makers as a potential market for making / selling games?
    3. How does gameplay support learning?  How can it be used in an educational game?
    4. In what settings are educational games the most appropriate form of learning?  What are some instructional strategies that make them more effective?
    5. What kind of educational outcomes (such as higher-order skills) are needed by today's new economy, and how do games support these better than traditional instruction?

Research Challenges in Adapting Simulations to Learning Environments:

  1. Understanding the degree of authenticity / fidelity needed to support learning
    1. How high does the fidelity NEED to be so knowledge can be transferred?  (Too authentic = too boring, since doesn't extend reality / fun?)  (Or, more authentic = more interesting, since knowledge acquisition promises applicability in the real world?)
    2. In terms of cognitive and physical fidelity:  how authentic does a simulation need to be so that training can be generalized to the real world?
    3. What techniques enhance authenticity / fidelity for what specific learning situations / tasks, for what kind of learner characteristics?
       
  1. Designing dynamically constructed narratives
    1. How could we construct a dynamic game narrative where the players' decisions affect the direction / outcome of the game?
    2. How can dynamic narratives be designed so that learning objectives (and plot sequences) are still met?
       
  1. Designing simulated actors with specific skills, knowledge, or personalities
    1. How can we design actors / avatars with the above displayed behaviors?  (Some has been done, but we need more research on this)
    2. How can we design in emotional sensitivity into avatars?

                                                               i.      See my proposal:  how can we design avatars that respond to / generate emotion (make us cry)? 

    1. How can we design avatars that elicit emotional responses from game players?
    2. How do humans interact with simulated actors?  (this would inform design process)
    3. What kind of personalities could be programmed into simulated actors / avatars to support specific learning goals?
       
  1. Incorporating educational scaffolding
    1. When / how is it appropriate to build scaffolding into educational games?
    2. How should the scaffolding structure be in a game?  How much / how many cues, hints, etc should we build them up with, and when / how to take them away?  Should gameplay be interrupted when adding / removing them?  (Engagement / immersion isn't enough on its own:  learners need to be able to learn and generalize that knowledge to other domains)
       
  1. Reporting and use of assessment and learner modeling data
    1. How can we integrate feedback and guidance into educational games (without a negative effect on the motivational features of the game)?

Areas of Research related to Educational Gaming that I felt were not specifically mentioned by FAS:

  1. Group learning processes / cognition in educational MMOGs
    1. How does group cognition affect learning in an online educational environment?
    2. Does online group membership increase motivation to learn and play the game?
    3. Can simulated actors / avatars in a MMOG help fill the place of the teacher?
    4. Can multiple teachers / classes increase the domain of knowledge available to students in educational MMOGs?
    5. Can group tasks / problems teach and motivate in ways that individual tasks cannot?

 

Educational game design is a multidisciplinary effort between the fields of:

 

After choosing a topic, try to look up in the paper and in my research the supporting arguments, authors interested, and research areas that support the topic

Mind Map: